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2024/10/08 城市因應氣候變遷的3種大膽調適方式

城市因應氣候變遷的3種大膽調適方式

發表日期:2024-9-21
作者:Meg Duff;翻譯:吳名翊
引用來源:https://www.livescience.com/planet-earth/climate-change/drinking-wastewater-building-an-island-from-scratch-and-creating-an-urban-forest-3-bold-ways-cities-are-already-adapting-to-climate-change
『參考要點』:氣候變遷從根本挑戰世界城市中心,而聖地牙哥、米蘭和雅加達這三個城市提供如何適應地球暖化的經驗。
 
義大利米蘭市的大理石外牆與石頭鋪成的街道看起來優雅而永恆,但所有這些石頭都會散發熱量,無法吸收雨水,預計這座豪華義大利城市的氣溫及洪水在未來幾十年只會增加;在印尼首都雅加達,每年冬天黑色的洪水都會湧入房屋,污水容易滋生疾病,但許多市民卻無力搬家。很快,氣候變遷使雅加達的更多地區,以及許多其他低窪城市低於海平面;在乾旱的聖地牙哥,水已經被視為珍貴的商品。隨著未來幾年乾旱的加劇,保護這項資源將變得更加重要。
人為造成的氣候變遷正在改變全球的天氣模式與生態系統,在某些地方,氣候變遷意味著過多的水,而在其他地區導致乾旱,需要採取全球行動來遏制化石燃料的使用,減緩氣溫上升,並防止人類造成的氣候變遷造成最嚴重的影響,但顯著的暖化已經開始。
城市必須做出回應,有些城市已經採取了大膽的措施。米蘭市正在種植數百萬棵樹;印尼正在遷移首都;而最早回應的主要城市之一聖地牙哥正在進行廢水回收。
這三個城市都提供不同的氣候調適路線圖,可以為世界其他地方提供借鏡。雖然沒有任何一種方法是治本的,但每種方法都能夠提供充滿希望的願景,讓我們學習如何在暖化的星球上生活與蓬勃發展,舉例來說,米蘭市目前致力於整個城市種植樹木,而不僅僅是關注最富裕的地區
歐洲森林研究所研究員瑪蒂爾達·范登博斯(Matilda van den Bosch)告訴《生活科學》雜誌:「我認為它是一個成功的榜樣,其他城市可以學習。」
 
米蘭:城市中的森林
與許多城市一樣,米蘭是一座「都市熱島」,氣溫與週遭農村地區高出7至14華氏度(約4至8攝氏度),其原因為建築物、道路與其他基礎設施,與森林及水相比,更能吸收及重新散發太陽的熱量,而氣候模型預測情況只會變得更糟,到2050年,城市氣溫將上升高達4.1華氏度(約2.3攝氏度)。
為了因應熱島效應,米蘭啟動一項名為米蘭森林(ForestaMi)的公私合作夥伴關係計畫,目標是到2030年種植300萬棵樹木與灌木。這項植樹計畫是米蘭一項更大的氣候計畫的一部分,米蘭希望該計畫能夠幫助到2050年,將當地氣溫控制在3.6華氏度(約2攝氏度)以下。
在城市規劃領域,植樹是一種流行的氣候緩解策略,樹木與其他植被可以提供遮蔭,比鵝卵石與人行道更能吸收及散發熱能,並將水分釋放到空氣,從而降低溫度。根據《柳葉刀》醫學雜誌2023年的一項研究表示,增加歐洲城市的樹冠可以減輕城市熱浪的影響,從而挽救數千人的生命。
但植樹還可能有其他好處。用土壤取代路面可以幫助城市吸收更多雨水並減少洪水,對米蘭來說至關重要,氣候模型預測米蘭在未來幾十年將面臨更多的暴雨。
但植樹有其限制,市議員埃琳娜·格蘭迪(Elena Grandi)在一封電子郵件中表示,2023年7月一場突如其來的冰雹襲擊了米蘭,短短15分鐘內就有5,000棵樹倒塌,市議員格蘭迪也指出,雖然這樣的風暴在米蘭很少見,但未來將面臨更多的洪水與乾旱,這意味著它需要能夠承受這種條件的樹木。
格蘭迪說:「我們學到必須以不同的方式規劃城市綠地,種植更能抵抗風暴、極端溫度和水資源短缺的樹種。」
 
雅加達:大規模搬遷
印尼雅加達市是一座大約比米蘭大八倍的大城市,同時面臨著水太少與太多的問題,這座沼澤城市有13條河流縱橫交錯,而海平面上升已經為地勢低窪的雅加達帶來了一場危機。
雅加達市是在荷蘭殖民時代圍繞著一系列運河建造的,自1990年以來,雅加達市的人口增加了一倍多,進一步加劇雅加達市基礎設施的壓力,阿拉巴馬農工大學印尼城市規劃教授兼專家德魯克馬納(Deden Rukmana)表示,由於雅加達市無法向居民提供足夠的自來水,高層公寓與高腳屋的屋主開始非法抽取地下水。
過度超抽地下水使這座城市成為世界上下沉最快的地區之一,有些地方每年下降4英寸(約10公分),沿海洪水迫使人們離開家園,以目前的速度,預計到2050年,該市95%的沿海地區將被淹沒。
而且風險並不侷限於海岸,依據模型預測,到2100年,海平面上升和地下水枯竭的綜合影響,將使整個城市低於海平面,海平面上升也意味著鹹水將污染該市的淡水供應。
為了爭取時間,雅加達市的城市規劃者已經開始建造與加固靠近海岸的堤防及河口。下一步,他們設想建造一個由17個島嶼組成的群,形狀像一隻巨鳥。這些島嶼將共同形成一個高80英尺(24公尺)、寬25英里(40公里)的海堤及一個人工潟湖,規劃者希望這將有助於緩衝城市免受潮汐洪水的影響。
 
但研究人員警告,如果過度抽水繼續導致內陸沉降,即使是巨大的海堤也無法防止洪水。魯克馬納說,重新安置高耗水工業並促進不易發生洪水的地區的發展對這方面有所幫助。
But researchers warn that even a huge seawall won't prevent flooding if overpumping continues to drive subsidence inland. Efforts to relocate water-guzzling industries and to promote development in areas that are less prone to flooding are helping on that front, Rukmana said.
魯克馬納說,為了保持海拔高度,印尼的主要城市需要打擊非法水井,並創造替代水源,可能需要數年時間,同時印尼也可以像東京市一樣努力補充含水層。
To stay above sea level, Indonesia's primary city will need to crack down on illegal wells and create alternate water sources, which could take years, Rukmana said. The city could also work to refill aquifers, as Tokyo has done.
但還有另一個步驟可以緩解雅加達地下水的壓力,大規模搬遷。2019年,印尼宣布計畫將首都從雅加達遷至婆羅洲島上,一個名為努桑塔拉的新城市,而第一批公務員預計將於2024年9月搬至該市。
But there is another step that could relieve pressure on Jakarta's groundwater: mass relocation. In 2019, Indonesia announced plans to move its capital from Jakarta to a new city called Nusantara, on the island of Borneo. The first civil servants are expected to move there in September 2024.
魯克馬納說,類似巴西與奈及利亞的城市搬遷,該計畫主要是將殖民時代的首都雅加達市,搬遷到印尼更中心的位置。
Like similar relocations in Brazil and Nigeria, Rukmana said, the project aims to relocate a colonial-era capital to a more central location within the country.
 
魯克馬納說:「人們仍然會搬到雅加達,假如沒有任何干預。」新首都努山塔拉不會立即改變這一點,但隨著時間的推移,它可能會產生影響。他說,當努山塔拉建成時,目標是讓10,000名公務員的工作重新安置。
"Without any intervention, people will still move to Jakarta," Rukmana said. Nusantara won't change that right away, but it could have an impact over time. When Nusantara is built, the goal is that 10,000 civil servants will have their jobs relocated, he said.
當然,搬遷並不總是按計畫進行,1999年,同樣由於水問題,馬來西亞將總理辦公室從吉隆坡遷至附近的布城。在過去的二十年裡,它的人口增加到了十萬人,但這個數字還不到預期總人口的五分之一,魯克馬納表示,從頭開始建造一座新城市是一個很大的風險,但如果它能為印尼提供新的發展來源,那麼它可能會為印尼帶來回報。
Of course, relocating doesn't always go as planned. In 1999, Malaysia moved its prime minister's office from Kuala Lumpur to nearby Putrajaya, also due to water issues. Over the past two decades, its population has increased to 100,000 — but that number is less than one-fifth of the total population envisioned. Rukmana said building a new city from scratch is a big risk but one that could pay off for Indonesia if it provides a new source of development for the country.
到目前為止,努山塔拉大部分土地剛剛被清理乾淨。但規劃者設想建立一個圍繞公共交通、適合步行的社區與電氣化建設的智慧城市,並配備強大的數位管理工具,這與雅加達擁堵的交通、空氣污染和過度擁擠的情況相去甚遠。
So far, Nusantara is mostly just cleared land. But planners envision a smart city built around public transportation, walkable neighborhoods and electrification, with robust digital tools for management — a far cry from Jakarta's congested traffic, air pollution and overcrowding.
印尼最近與聯合國合作,徵求居住在Argo Mulyo村莊居民的意見,該村莊是一個現有村莊,將納入 Nusantara 的足跡。
Indonesia recently partnered with the United Nations to get input from people living in Argo Mulyo, an existing village that will be incorporated into Nusantara's footprint.
 
努桑塔拉也有植樹目標,可以說比米蘭的目標更有野心,新城市將坐落在以前用於工業化農業的土地上,目標是重新造林204,000英畝(約826.2平方公里)的雨林,按照該市目前的種植密度,這相當於數千萬棵樹。
Nusantara also has tree-planting goals, which are arguably even more ambitious than Milan's. The new city will be located on land that was previously used for industrial agriculture; it aims to reforest 204,000 acres (83,000 hectares) of rainforest. At the city's current planting densities, that would be the equivalent of tens of millions of trees.
然而,據非營利的環境科學與保育新聞網站Mongabay報導,到目前為止,專家們表示這些努力還不夠,正在種植桉樹等非本地樹木,而不是當地的雨林樹種,可能需要採取分階段的方法來解決該地區受損的土壤問題。例如,可能需要先種植「先鋒」樹種,然後種植典型的雨林樹種,以複製自然森林過程。
So far, however, experts say those efforts are falling short, Mongabay reported. Non-native trees, such as Eucalyptus, are being planted instead of local rainforest species, and a phased approach may be needed to account for the area's damaged soil. For example, "pioneer" tree species may need to be planted first, followed by typical rainforest species, to replicate natural forest processes.
努山塔拉市領導人表示,他們正在制訂總體規劃來因應這些挑戰。然而,從長遠來看,雅加達市仍然需要解決自己的問題,魯克馬納說。
Nusantara city leaders say they are working on a master plan to address these challenges. In the long run, however, Jakarta still needs to address its own problems, Rukmana said.
 
聖地牙哥:回收廢水
San Diego: No-waste wastewater
地勢低窪的雅加達正在與洪水作鬥爭,而聖地亞哥則面臨乾旱,這座加州城市的年降雨量不到12英吋(30公分),預計隨著氣候變遷的惡化,氣溫將升高,降雨量也將變得更加難以預測。
While low-lying Jakarta struggles with flooding, arid San Diego faces drought. The California city, which gets less than 12 inches (30 cm) of rainfall a year, is predicted to experience hotter temperatures and less-predictable rain as climate change worsens.
但聖地牙哥比許多城市都要好,因為它的氣候調適實際上在幾十年前就開始了,1990年加州遭遇乾旱時,聖地牙哥的供水商洛杉磯大都會水區暫時將該市的供水量削減了一半。
But San Diego is in a better place than many cities because its climate adaptation actually began decades ago. When California faced a drought in 1990, San Diego's water supplier, the Los Angeles Metropolitan Water District, temporarily cut the city's water supply by half.
現任聖地牙哥市水務局水資源主管的傑夫·史蒂芬森(Jeff Stephenson)說:「我們需要建立自己的獨立水源。」
"The political leaders in San Diego said, 'We just can't have this; we need to create our own water independence,'" Jeff Stephenson, now the director of water resources for the San Diego County Water Authority, told Live Science.
當時,他們開始提出低流量廁所倡議,以減少家庭用水量,激發全國各地的類似努力,但聖地牙哥才剛開始。
At that point, they began rolling out a low-flow-toilet initiative to reduce household water consumption that inspired similar efforts around the country. But San Diego was just getting started.
過去30年來,該市幾乎動用一切可用手段來減少需求,在低流量廁所之後,是低水景觀美化以及與內陸農業區的節水夥伴關係。
Over the past 30 years, the city has pulled just about every lever available to reduce demand. Low-flow toilets were followed by low-water landscaping and a water conservation partnership with inland agricultural areas.
自從開始保護水源工作以來,聖地牙哥市已成功將人均用水量減少了一半,並進一步減少對供水商的依賴,但僅靠節水還不夠。史蒂芬森說:「你不可能完全透過節約來擺脫乾旱,你仍然需要水。」
Since it started conservation efforts, San Diego County has successfully halved its per capita water use and reduced its reliance on water from Los Angeles by even more. But water conservation on its own isn't enough. "You can't conserve your way completely out of a drought," Stephenson said. "You're still going to need water."
因此,聖地牙哥市建造並加高水壩增加蓄水量、建造運河防止河水從科羅拉多河中滲出,以及建造水泵,將聖地牙哥市內的水向北輸送,以因應乾旱。
So, the city built and raised dams for more water storage and lined canals to prevent water from seeping away en route from the Colorado River. It built pumps to move water north within San Diego County, partly in case of droughts.

聖地牙哥市也採取行動強化當地的供水,由於該市豐富的海水彌補了地下水的不足,聖地牙哥投資建造全美最大的海水淡化廠,目前該廠供應聖地牙哥市約10%的水。
And San Diego also moved to beef up its local water supply. Because the city's plentiful ocean water makes up for its lack of groundwater, San Diego invested in the nation's largest desalination plant, which currently supplies around 10% of the region's water.
經過三十年的努力,加上幾個潮濕的冬天,聖地亞哥現在有多餘的水。該公司甚至計畫將部分科羅拉多河水源出租給附近的城市。
After three decades of work, plus a couple of wet winters, San Diego now has water to spare. It's even planning to lease some of its Colorado River supply to nearby cities.
面對可能出現更多氣候驅動的乾旱,該市仍計畫採取更多行動。為此,聖地牙哥再次從廁所中尋找靈感。在接下來的十年中,聖地牙哥市與兩個郊區計畫將廢水回,這是加州的一種新方法,它超越用於景觀美化的、不能飲用的灰水。相反,聖地牙哥將把淨化後的廢水送回城市的飲用水供應系統。
And facing the likelihood of more climate-driven drought, the city is still aiming to do more. For that, San Diego is again looking to toilets for inspiration. Over the next decade, the city of San Diego and two suburbs plan to recycle wastewater back into city taps. This is a new approach in California. It goes beyond gray water — not-quite-drinkable water that's used for landscaping. Instead, San Diego will send purified wastewater back into the city's potable water supply.
史蒂芬森說,這種淨化水平可能聽起來令人畏懼,但當規劃者計算數字時,它比其他廢棄物升級更便宜,聖地牙哥市預計到2045年,其18%的水將來自再生水。
That level of purification may sound daunting, but when planners ran the numbers, it was cheaper than other waste upgrades, Stephenson said. San Diego County expects 18% of its water to come from recycled water by 2045.
所有這些變化都需要政治意願。它們也需要大量資源:聖地牙哥受益於穩定的人口、充足的資金和高效率的政府系統,而世界上許多城市都缺乏這些。
All of these changes took political will. They also required substantial resources: San Diego benefits from a stable population, plenty of funding and efficient government systems, which many cities worldwide lack.
對聖地牙哥以及米蘭、雅加達及努山塔拉來說,類似登月計畫的方法並不是避免氣候影響的靈丹妙藥,史蒂芬森鼓勵各城市採用多種方法,並堅持下去,改變是一步一步發生的,這是一個緩慢的過程,但就像在聖地牙哥一樣,結果最終會到來。
And for San Diego — as well as Milan, Jakarta and Nusantara — one moonshot project will not be a silver bullet for avoiding climate impacts.
Stephenson encouraged cities to use a variety of approaches — and to stick it out. Change happens one step at a time. "It's a slow process," he said, but as in San Diego, the results eventually come.